Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. For instance, the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. Therefore, the abuse potential of central nervous system depressants is relatively high. Some animals never sleep (e.g., some fish and amphibian species); other animals sleep very little without apparent negative consequences (e.g., giraffes); yet some animals (e.g., rats) die after two weeks of sleep deprivation (Siegel, 2008). A person with asleep debtdoes not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. Variations and adaptations in cognition and behavior make individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing their genes to their offspring. Theta wavesare even lower frequency (47 Hz), higher amplitude brain waves than alpha waves. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years (Mitchell, 2009; Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2011). Asleep spindleis a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel & Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). Popular portrayals of hypnosis have led to some widely-held misconceptions. Social programs like Medicare: a - offer health coverage for the older adults 24. Caffeine is found in many common medicines (such as weight loss drugs), beverages, foods, and even cosmetics (Herman & Herman, 2013). c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. People who suffer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day. Early versions of this theory proposed that dreams were not the meaning-filled representations of angst proposed by Freud and others, but were rather the result of our brain attempting to make sense of (synthesize) the neural activity (activation) that was happening during REM sleep. Normal brain functioning is altered after repeated use of these drugs. This is known as the REM rebound, and it suggests that REM sleep is also homeostatically regulated. Common definitions of health include: a. optimal weight and endurance. By analyzing dreams, Freud thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives. In general, these drugs are not thought to possess the same sort of abuse potential as other classes of drugs discussed in this section. Fever. Meditative techniques have their roots in religious practices (Figure 4.21), but their use has grown in popularity among practitioners of alternative medicine. Some of these areas include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). This hypnogram illustrates how an individual moves through the various stages of sleep. Upset stomach and vomiting. In individuals diagnosed with a substance use disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated with both physical and psychological dependence. In addition, sleep deprivation often results in depression-like symptoms. According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is focused elsewhere. Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. Many of these drugs, and their relationships, are shown inTable 4.2. The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. EVERYDAY CONNECTION: Solutions to Support Healthy Sleep, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). Historically, hypnosis has been viewed with some suspicion because of its portrayal in popular media and entertainment (Figure 4.20). Medical marijuana is legal in over half of the United States and in the District of Columbia (Figure 4.19). One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. Beyond being awake or asleep, there are many other states of consciousness people experience. A) a mole that looks cancerous B) nasal congestion C) change in heart rate D) issues with breathing Which of the following American health care systems is most known for requiring a referral from a primary care doctor in order to see a specialist? In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. This feeling of a depressed mood is also accompanied by two or more additional symptoms, to include changes in appetite, insomnia or hypersomnia, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness, and poor concentration or difficulty with decision making. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS (Berkowitz, 2012; Mage & Donner, 2006; Thach, 2005). Alertness is associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures. Latent content, on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. The brains clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as thesuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep (Burgess & Scammell, 2012; Hishikawa & Shimizu, 1995; Luppi et al., 2011). People vary in terms of their ability to be hypnotized, but a review of available research suggests that most people are at least moderately hypnotizable (Kihlstrom, 2013). Research indicates that included among these possible benefits are increased capacities for creative thinking (Cai, Mednick, Harrison, Kanady, & Mednick, 2009; Wagner, Gais, Haider, Verleger, & Born, 2004), language learning (Fenn, Nusbaum, & Margoliash, 2003; Gmez, Bootzin, & Nadel, 2006), and inferential judgments (Ellenbogen, Hu, Payne, Titone, & Walker, 2007). Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. With excessive alcohol use, a person might experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim & Hancock, 2013). Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. Weakness and fatigue. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). As he went to investigate what was going on, he was met by a group of police officers who arrested him for the murder of his wife (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). Cognitive-behavioral therapyis a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. The pituitary gland also secretes growth hormone, during sleep, which plays a role in physical growth and maturation as well as other metabolic processes (Bartke, Sun, & Longo, 2013). Thepineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). While sleep apnea is less common in thin people, anyone, regardless of their weight, who snores loudly or gasps for air while sleeping, should be checked for sleep apnea. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). Sleep is not a uniform state of being. Sleep reboundrefers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will fall asleep more quickly during subsequent opportunities for sleep. In some cases, though, there may be no symptoms of inflammation at all. During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. This is illustrated by McCartys (2010) case study of a 50-year-old woman who sought help for the excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours that she had experienced for several years. This treatment option has proven to be effective for people suffering from mild to severe cases of sleep apnea (McDaid et al., 2009). The pineal and pituitary glands secrete a number of hormones during sleep. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. Stage 1 sleepis a transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep, the period during which we drift off to sleep. 1. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. To keep heroin affordable, many dealers began adding more potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl to increase the effects of heroin. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). Given that withdrawal from a drug often involves an experience opposite to the effect of the drug, it should be no surprise that opioid withdrawal resembles a severe case of the flu. Primary signs and symptoms of Ebola often include some or several of the following: Fever. Homeostasisis the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. However, all of their somnambulistic patients who also suffered from sleep-related breathing problems showed a marked decrease in sleepwalking when their breathing problems were effectively treated. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. The internal state of an object is the set of all its attributes' values. This often results in sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of depression and anxiety. Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and the criteria for specific substance (drug) use disorders are described in DSM-5. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the brains clock mechanism. The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy. C) the severity and duration of the problem. We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. He suffered from no apparent anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by some individuals. (b) People practicing meditation may experience an alternate state of consciousness. Amphetamines have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its release (Figure 4.16). The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is called homeostasis. Stimulantsare drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. Upon admission to an outpatient clinic for treatment of mood disorders, she met all of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence and was advised to dramatically limit her caffeine intake. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a five-month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. How does hypnosis work? The crisis actually began in the 1990s, when pharmaceutical companies began mass-marketing pain-relieving opioid drugs like OxyContin with the promise (now known to be false) that they were non-addictive. Early attempts to treat her condition with a stimulant drug alone were unsuccessful. The effects of all psychoactive drugs occur through their interactions with our endogenous neurotransmitter systems. Sleep apnea is much more common in overweight people and is often associated with loud snoring. Hypnosisis a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli. typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. It is also common for these types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time. Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. . In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. This causes blood vessels to dilate, and the skin may feel warm and flushed. Which of the following was an advance in science and medicine in the18th and 19th centuries? This becomes a self-perpetuating cycle because increased anxiety leads to increased arousal, and higher levels of arousal make the prospect of falling asleep even more unlikely. You don't have to be a psychologist to know that conditions like hunger or fatigue have an impact on thinking and decision-making; these are examples of internal states. Insudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. To prevent withdrawal, many people turned to cheaper heroin, which could be bought for $5 a dose or less. describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. For instance, some people would say they are morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls. While this is an intuitive explanation of sleep, there is little research that supports this explanation. We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). b. life expectancy has reached a new high. There was a significant positive correlation between the degree to which women thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006). The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let go. (credit sleeping: modification of work by Ryan Vaarsi). We might even describe consciousness as a continuum that ranges from full awareness to a deep sleep. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. It is often prescribed for minor pain, and it is available over-the-counter in some other countries. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. If you cannot fall asleep, leave your bed and do something else until you feel tired again. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. Among a variety of neurobiological evidence, John Hobson cites research on lucid dreams as an opportunity to better understand dreaming in general. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. Narcoleptic episodes take on other features of REM sleep. As we grow older, we sleep less. In the variation of mindful meditation, the meditators attention is focused on some internal process or an external object (Zeidan, Grant, Brown, McHaffie, & Coghill, 2012). In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity. Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. Therefore, it is important to make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based therapeutic approach versus as a form of entertainment. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. (a) Delta waves, which are low frequency and high amplitude, characterize (b) slow-wave stage 3 and stage 4 sleep. You have read that the pineal gland releases melatonin during sleep (Figure 4.6). Elements that are known to make PTSD more likely are the following: Perceived life threat Personal injury Interpersonal violence, particularly perpetrated by a caregiver Past and present vulnerability, including genetics, childhood trauma, insufficient emotional support, concurrent causes of stress Example: Childhood abuse and rape Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environments natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of a circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature. Central sleep apnea is caused by a failure of the brain to activate the muscles of breathing during sleep. (West et al., 2009, p. 114). c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. It is typically consumed in pill form. NCEH provides leadership to promote health and quality of life by preventing or controlling those diseases, birth defects, or disabilities resulting from interaction between people and the environment. Avoid anything stimulating for an hour before bed. Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. (a) A period of rapid eye movement is marked by the short red line segment. In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening (Julien, 2005). In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. Cocaine can be taken in multiple ways. The woman used caffeine in the past to boost her mood and to provide energy, but over the course of several years, she increased her caffeine consumption to the point that she was consuming three liters of soda each day. In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws.
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